Israele

In Israele, la maggior parte delle aree collinari è di interesse speleologico, con molte tipologie di rocce che favoriscono la formazione di grotte naturali e artificiali. Il paese mostra un gradiente di carsismo e di grotte che va dall’intenso carsismo del Libano nel nord al carsismo minore nella regione di Eilat, nel deserto del Negev meridionale.

Le principali regioni carsiche e grotte di Israele includono Hermon e Golan, Galillee, Mount Carmel, Shomron, Giudea, Giudea – deserti del Negev, e Mount Sedom. Ogni regione ha le sue caratteristiche uniche in termini di tipo di grotte e habitat cavernicoli.

Israele è anche ricco di cavità artificiali, create dall’uomo come parte dell’infrastruttura economica e fisica di città e villaggi. Queste cavità sono state create durante l’antichità e sono state utilizzate per vari scopi, tra cui cisterne, cave di roccia, frantoi, stalle, colombari, magazzini e granai.

Le organizzazioni speleologiche nazionali in Israele includono l’Israel Cave Research Centre (ICRC), con circa 100 speleologi e 3 gruppi e organizzazioni speleologiche. La principale pubblicazione speleologica è “Niqrot Zurim”.

La biospeleologia in Israele è caratterizzata da una notevole varietà di grotte e habitat cavernicoli, ognuno con un insieme unico di specie. La fauna delle grotte riflette la storia evolutiva che ha avuto luogo nelle vicinanze epigee delle grotte. La posizione geografica di Israele, che funge da ponte intercontinentale, ospita fauna di diverse regioni continentali e biogeografiche.

Esistono due gruppi principali di specie cavernicole: le “specie cavernicole relitte di origine paleartica”, che rappresentano una fauna relitta settentrionale e temperata, e le “specie di relitti desertici o tropicali”, che rappresentano la fauna saharo-araba o afro-tropicale.

Il sistema di grotte di Ayyalon è un esempio unico che combina il carsismo ipogenico con una fauna sotterranea endemica. Questo sistema utilizza una rete alimentare chemiosintetica basata sull’H2S all’interno dei pennacchi ascendenti di acqua idrotermale.

In termini di protezione legale, in Israele non esiste una “legge sulla conservazione delle grotte”. Tuttavia, le grotte sono protette da leggi indirette come la “Dichiarazione dei valori naturali protetti”, che si riferisce anche a stalagmiti e stalattiti e protegge tutte le 32 specie di pipistrelli che vivono in Israele. Questo significa che cacciare, raccogliere o danneggiare i pipistrelli, così come danneggiare i loro habitat naturali (grotte), è considerato illegale.

Coordinatori: Boaz Langford^1,2 boazlangford@gmail.com, Amos Frumkin^1,2 amos.frumkin@mail.huji.ac.il

Collaboratori: Shlomi Aharon, Boaz Zissu

¹Istituto di Scienze della Terra, Università Ebraica di Gerusalemme, Israele

²Centro di ricerca sulle grotte in Israele

BIBLIOGRAFIA ESSENZIALE DEL PAESE

GENERALE

• Frumkin, A., 2001. “Karst and caves of Israel, in Juberthie, C. and Decu, V.”, eds., Encyclopaedia Biospeleologica: Moulis, Société de Biospéologie, v. 3, p. 1840-1849.
• Frumkin, A., (ed.), 2015. “Atlas of the Holey Land – Judean Desert Caves”. Magnes, 458 pp (Hebrew).
• Frumkin, A., Aharon, S., Davidovich, U., Langford, B., Negev, Y., Ullman, M., Vaks, A., Ya‘aran, S., Zissu, B., 2018. “Old and recent processes in a warm and humid desert ypogene cave: ‘A’rak Na‘asane, Israel”. International Journal of Speleology 47, 307-321.

GROTTE CALCAREE IPOGENICHE

• Frumkin, A., Langford, B., Lisker, S., Amrani, A., 2017. Hypogenic karst at the Arabian platform margins: implications for far-field groundwater systems”. Bulletin of the Geological Society of America 129 (11-12): 1636-1659.
• Naaman, I., Dimentman, H., Frumkin, A., 2014. “Active hypogene Speleogenesis in a regional karst aquifer”. In: Klimchouk, A., Sasowsky, I.D., Mylroie, J., Engel, S.A., Engel, A.S., eds, hypogene cave morphologies, Karst Water Institute, Special Publication 18: 73-74.
• Frumkin, A., Langford, B., Porat, R., 2017. “The Judean Desert – the major hypogene cave region of the southern Levant”. In: Klimchouk, A., Palmer, A., De Waele, J., Auler, A., Audra, P., eds., Hypogene karst regions and caves of the world. Springer, Cham, Switzerland, p. 463-477.
• Frumkin, A., Langford, B., 2017. “Arid hypogene karst in a multi-aquifer system: hydrogeology and speleogenesis of Ashalim Cave, Negev Desert, Israel”. In: Parise, M.,Gabrovsek, F., Kaufmann, G. & Ravbar, N. (eds) Advances in Karst Research: Theory, Fieldwork and Applications. Geological Society, London, Special Publications 466

GEOLOGIA

• Frumkin, A., 2017. “Quaternary evolution of caves and associated palaeoenvironments of the southern Levant”. In: Enzel Y. and Bar-Yosef O., eds. Quaternary of the Levant. Cambridge University Press, chapter 15.
• Lisker, S., Porat, R., Davidovich, U., Eshel, H., Lauritzen, S.E, Frumkin, A., 2007. “Late Quaternary environmental and human events at En Gedi, reflected by the geology and archaeology of the Moringa Cave (Dead Sea area, Israel)”. Quaternary Research, v. 68, 203–212.

GROTTE E CARSISMO SALINI

• Frumkin, A., 1994. “Morphology and development of salt caves”. Journal of Caves and Karst Studies (NSS Bull.), v. 56, p. 82-95.
• Frumkin, A., and Forti, P., 1997. “Liquid Crystal Cave, Israel”. In Hill, C. and Forti, P., eds., Cave Minerals of the World: Huntsville, U. S. National Speleological Society, p. 319-322.
• Frumkin, A., 1998. “Salt cave cross-sections and their paleoenvironmental implications”. Geomorphology, v. 23, p. 183-191.
• Frumkin, A., 2000. “Speleogenesis in salt — the Mount Sedom area, Israel”. In Klimchouk

, A. B., Ford, D. C., A., P. and Dreybrodt, W., eds., Speleogenesis: Evolution of Karst Aquifers: Huntsville, National Speleological Society, p. 443-451.

• Frumkin, A., 2004. “Sedom salt karst, Israel”. In Gunn, J., ed., Encyclopedia of cave and karst science: New York, Fitzroy Dearborn, p. 637-639.
• Frumkin, A, 2013. “Salt Karst”. In: Frumkin, A., volume ed., Shroder, J., ed. in chief, Treatise in Geomorphology, vol. 6, p. 208-424. San Diego, Elsevier, Academic Press.

GROTTE CALCAREE ISOLATE

• Frumkin, A., 1996. “Geology and speleology of Nahal Qanah Cave System, in Gofer, A., ed., The Nahal Qanah Cave: Tel Aviv”. Tel Aviv University, v. 12, p. 139-146.
• Frumkin, A., and Fischhendler, I., 2005. “Morphometry and distribution of isolated caves as a guide for phreatic and confined paleohydrological conditions”. Geomorphology, v. 67, p. 457-471.
• Fischhendler, I. and Frumkin, A., 2008. „Distribution, evolution and morphology of caves in south-western Samaria, Israel“. Israel Journal of Earth Sciences; 57: 311–322.
• Frumkin, A., Karkanas, P., Bar-Matthews, M., Barkai, R., Gopher, A., Shahack-Gross, R., and Vaks, A., 2009. “Gravitational deformations and fillings of aging caves: the example of Qesem karst system, Israel”. Geomorphology, 106, 154–164.
• Frumkin, A., Langford, B., Marder, O., & Ullman, M., 2016“. Paleolithic caves and hillslope processes in south-western Samaria, Israel”. Environmental and archaeological implications. Quaternary International, 398, 246-258.

GROTTE CALCAREE DI GELILEA

• Frumkin, A., Barzilai, O., Hershkovitz, I., Ullman, M., Marder, O., 2019. “Karst terrain in the western upper Galilee, Israel”. Speleogenesis, hydrogeology and human preference of Manot Cave, Journal of Human Evolution

GROTTE MARINE

• Ronen, A., Neber, A., Mienis, H. K., Horwitz, L. K., Frumkin, A., Boenigk, W., and Galili, E., 2008. “Mousterian occupation on an OIS 5e shore near the mount carmel caves, Israel”. In Sulgostowska, Z., and Tomaszewski, A. J., eds., Men – Millennia – Environment: Warsaw, Institute of Archaeology and Ethnology, Polish Academy of Sciences, p. 197-205.
• Sivan, D., Sisma-Ventura, G., Greenbaum, N., Bialik, O.M., Williams, F.H., Tamisiea, M.E., Rohling, E.J., Frumkin, A., Avnaim-Katav, S., Shtienberg, G. and Stein, M., 2016. “Eastern Mediterranean sea levels through the last interglacial from a coastal-marine sequence in northern Israel”. Quaternary Science Reviews, 145, pp.204-225.

GROTTE VULCANICHE

• Frumkin A., Naor, R., 2019. „Formation and modification of pit craters – example from the Golan volcanic plateau, southern Levant“. Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie 62-3: 163-181.

GROTTE DI GESSO

• Frumkin, A., 1990. “A karst cave in chalk – the longest of its kind in Israel (Hebrew)”. Horizons in Geography, v. 31, p. 203-207.

ARCHEOLOGIA

• Porat, R., Eshel, H., Frumkin, A., 2007. « Finds from the Bar-Kochba revolt from two caves at En Gedi ». Palestine Exploration Quarterly, 139, 1,

35–53.

• Porat, R., Eshel, H., Frumkin, A., 2009. « The ‘Caves of the Spear’: Refuge caves from the Bar-Kokhba revolt north of ‘En-Gedi ». Israel Exploration Journal 59,1, 21-46.
• Zissu, B., Porat, R., Langford, B., and Frumkin, A., 2011. “Archaeological Remains of the Bar Kokhba Revolt in the Te’omim Cave (Mŭghâret Umm et Tûeimîn), Western Jerusalem Hills”. Journal of Jewish Studies 52,2, 262-283.
• Weinstein-Evron, M., Tsatskin, A., Weiner, S., Shahack-Gross, R., Frumkin, A., Yeshurun, R., Zaidner, Y., 2012. “A Window into Early Middle Paleolithic Human Occupational Layers: Misliya Cave, Mount Carmel, Israel”. PaleoAnthropology 2012:202−228.
• Nadel, D., Shtober-Zisu, N., Frumkin, A., Yaroshevich, A., 2012. “New Prehistoric Cave Sites in Lower Nahal Oren, Mt. Carmel, Israel”. Journal of the Israel Prehistoric Society 42:75-114.
• Langford, B., Frumkin, A., Avner, U., Ginat, H., 2018. “Nahal Amram, southern Arabah valley: a survey of underground copper mines”. In: Ben- Yosef, E., ed., Mining for ancient copper, Essays in Memory of Beno Rothenberg. Tel Aviv University Institute of Archaeology Monograph 37, sch. 14, 217-227. ISBN: 978-1-57506-964-7
• Marder, O., Alex, B., Ayalon, A., Bar-Matthews, Bar-Oz, G., Bar-Yosef Mayer, D., Berna, F., Boaretto, E., Caracuta, V., Frumkin, A., Goder- Goldberger, M., Hershkovitz, I., Latimer, B., Ron Lavi, Matthews, A., Weiner, S., Weiss, U., Yas’ur, G., Yeshurun, R., Barzilai, O., 2013. “The Upper Palaeolithic of Manot Cave, Western Galilee, Israel”. the 2011–12 excavations. Antiquity 087:337.
• Shivtiel, Y., Frumkin, A., 2014. “The use of caves as security measures in the Early Roman Period in the Galilee: Cliff Settlements and Shelter Caves”. Caderno de Geografia, 24, 41:77-85.
• Davidovich U., Ullman M., Langford B., Frumkin A., Langgut D., Yahalom-Mack N., Abramov J., Marom N., 2018. “Distancing the Dead: complex cave burials in the Northern Negev Desert (Israel) during the Late Chalcolithic period”. BASOR 379 (2018): 113–52.
• Eshel H. and Zissu B., 2019. “The Bar Kokhba Revolt – The Archaeological Evidence”. Jerusalem.
• Kloner A., 2003. “Maresha Excavations Final Report I”. Subterranean Complexes 21, 44, 70, IAAR 17, Jerusalem.
• Kloner A. and Zissu B., 2003. “Hiding Complexes in Judaea: An Archaeological and Geographical Update on the Area of the Bar Kokhba Revolt”. In: P. Schäfer (ed.), The Bar Kokhba War Reconsidered: New Perspectives on the Second Jewish Revolt against Rome, Tübingen: 181-216.
• Kloner A. and Zissu B., 2009. “Underground Hiding Complexes in Israel and the Bar Kokhba Revolt”. Opera Ipogea, Journal of Speleology in Artificial Caves 1/2009: 9-28.
• Kloner A. and Zissu B., 2013. “The Subterranean Complexes of Maresha: An Urban Center from the Hellenistic Period in the Judean Foothills, Israel”. Opera Ipogea, Journal of Speleology in Artificial Cavities 2/2013: 45-62.
• Zissu B., and Kloner A., 2014. “The Bell-Shaped Quarries of the Judean Foothills, Israel”. Opera Ipogea, Journal of Speleology in Artificial Cavities, 2/2014. Pp. 47-60

ANTICHI ACQUEDOTTI

• Frumkin, A., and Shimron, A., 2006. “Tunnel engineering in the Iron Age: geoarchaeology of the Siloam Tunnel, Jerusalem”. Journal of Archaeological Science v. 33, 227-237.
• Frumkin, A. 2017. “The underground water systems of Ma’abarta – Flavia Neapolis, Israel”. Geoarchaeology, 33:127–140.
• Yechezkel, A., and Frumkin, A., in press. “Ancient spring tunnels of Jerusalem, Israel: Physical, Spatial, and Human aspects”. Environmental Archaeology.
• Yechezkel, A., and Frumkin, A., 2016. “Spring Tunnels (Niqba’), The Jerusalem Hills Perspective, Israel”. In: Angelakis, A.N., Chiotis, E., Eslamian, S. and Weingartner, H. eds. Underground Aqueducts Handbook. CRC Press. https://books.google.gr/books?id=NeCVDQAAQBAJ

BIOLOGIA

• Guy-Haim, T., Simon-Blecher, N., Frumkin, A., Naaman, I. and Achituv, Y., 2018. “Multiple transgressions and slow evolution shape the phylogeographic pattern of the blind cave-dwelling shrimp Typhlocaris”. PeerJ, 6, p.e5268.
• Frumkin, A., Dimentman, C. and Naaman, I., 2021. Biogeography of living fossils as a key for geological reconstruction of the East Mediterranean: Ayyalon – Nesher Ramla system, Israel. Quaternary International, in press